In this and my previous post, I discuss some British philosophers that even\u00a0most well-educated laypeople have never heard of.\u00a0 Why?\u00a0 Because they shed a great deal of light on the subjects of human nature and morality.\u00a0 These subjects are critical to our self-understanding, which, in turn, is critical to our survival.\u00a0 If we had read, understood, and built on what they taught, we\u00a0might have avoided wandering into many of the blind alleys into which we were led by\u00a0subsequent generations of the “men of science.”\u00a0 The most damaging and delusional blind alley\u00a0of all was the Blank Slate orthodoxy.\u00a0 Ironically, it was enforced by exploiting the very moral emotions whose existence it denied, setting back the behavioral sciences and moral philosophy by more than a century in the process.\u00a0 View, if you like, these posts as an attempt to pick up the lost threads.<\/p>\n
In my previous post I highlighted the philosophy of Francis Hutcheson<\/a>.\u00a0 I note in passing that he was\u00a0actually born in Ireland, and studied and received his degree in Scotland.\u00a0 I did that because Hutcheson was the first, or at least the first I know of, to elaborate a well thought out and coherent theory of the origins of morality in an innate “moral sense,” demonstrating in the process\u00a0why, absent such a moral sense, moral behavior is not even possible.\u00a0 In other words, the “root cause” of morality is this moral sense.\u00a0 Furthermore, Hutcheson explained why, as a consequence, it is impossible to distinguish between good and evil using reason alone.\u00a0 Two hundred years later the great Finnish moral philosopher Edvard Westermarck<\/a>, who had read and admired Hutcheson,\u00a0noted that in the ensuing years, his contention that, “the moral concepts are ultimately based on emotions either of indignation or approval, is a fact which a certain school of thinkers have in vain attempted to deny.”<\/p>\n That said, it is hardly true that the\u00a0works of many other 18th century British authors do not contain ideas similar to Hutcheson’s.\u00a0 Such authors are often able to see further and more clearly than those who have come before by virtue of the privilege of, as Einstein put it, “sitting on the shoulders of giants.”\u00a0 In Hutcheson’s case, one such giant was Anthony Ashley-Cooper, the third Earl of Shaftesbury<\/a>.\u00a0 Hutcheson certainly left no one in doubt concerning his debt to Shaftesbury in his own time.\u00a0 Sir James MacKintosh<\/a>, who left sketches of many forgotten British moral philosophers who are well worth reading today\u00a0in his, “On the progress of ethical philosophy, chiefly during the XVIIth & XVIIIth centuries<\/a>,”\u00a0which first appeared\u00a0as a supplement to the Encyclopedia Brittanica in 1829, went so far as to refer to Shaftesbury as Hutcheson’s “master.”\u00a0 Although Shaftesbury was born in England, MacKintosh claimed that, “…the philosophy of Shaftesbury was brought by Hutcheson from Ireland,” after it and similar works had been suppressed in England for some time “by an exemplary but unlettered clergy.”<\/p>\n Like Hutcheson, many of the themes in Shaftesbury’s writings would have\u00a0sounded very\u00a0familiar to modern evolutionary psychologists.\u00a0 For example, he had this to say on the Blank Slate ideology of his day:<\/p>\n It was Mr. Locke that struck at all fundamentals, threw all order and virtue<\/em> out of the world, and made the very ideas of these… unnatural and without foundation in our minds.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n Locke, of course, is often cited as a forerunner of the Blank Slaters <\/a>of the 20th century, although the comparison isn’t entirely accurate.\u00a0 He rejected innate morality\u00a0because\u00a0it was incompatible with his\u00a0Christian theology rather than the secular “progressive” ideology of a later day.<\/p>\n The key theme of Hutcheson’s work as far as the modern science of morality is concerned – the existence of an innate “moral sense” –\u00a0is, if anything, emphasized even more strongly\u00a0in the writings of Shaftesbury.\u00a0 For example, from his Inquiry Concerning Virtue or Merit<\/em>, probably his most important work on morality as far as modern readers are concerned,<\/p>\n Sense of right and wrong therefore being as natural to us as natural affection<\/em> itself, and being a first principle in our constitution and make; there is no speculative opinion, persuasion or belief, which is capable immediately or directly<\/em> to exclude or destroy it.\u00a0 That which is of original and pure nature, nothing beside contrary habit or custom (a second nature) is able to displace.\u00a0 And this affection being an original one<\/em> of earliest rise in the soul or affectionate part; nothing beside a contrary affection, by frequent check and control, can operate upon it, so as either to diminish it in part, or destroy it in whole.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n A somewhat startling aspect of Shaftesbury’s work, given the time in which it was written, was his recognition of the continuity between human beings and other animal species.\u00a0 For example, again from the Inquiry<\/em>,<\/p>\n We know that every creature has a private good and interest of his own, which Nature has compelled him to seek, by all the advantages afforded him within the compass of his make.\u00a0 We know that there is in reality a right and a wrong state of every creature, and that this right one is by nature forwarded and by himself affectionately sought.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n and<\/p>\n We have found that, to deserve the name of good or virtuous, a creature most have all his inclinations and affections, his dispositions of mind and temper, suitable, and agreeing with the good of his kind, or of that system in which he is included, and of which he constitutes a part.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n and, finally,<\/p>\n The ordinary animals appear unnatural and monstrous when they lose their proper instincts, forsake their kind, neglect their offspring, and pervert those functions or capacities bestowed by nature.\u00a0 How wretched must it be, therefore, for man, of all other creatures, to lose that sense and feeling which is proper to him as a man, and suitable to his character and genius?<\/p><\/blockquote>\n If one didn’t know better, one might easily imagine that E. O. Wilson’s<\/a> latest book, The Meaning of Human Existence<\/em><\/a>, with its\u00a0assertions about our\u00a0“good”\u00a0nature being the result of group selection, and our “evil” nature the result of selection at the level of the individual, had been inspired by Shaftesbury.\u00a0 For example,<\/p>\n There being allowed therefore in a creature such affections as these towards the common nature or system of the kind, together with those other which regard the private nature or self-system, it will appear that in following the first of these affections, the creature must on many occasions contradict and go against the latter.\u00a0 How else should the species be preserved?\u00a0 Or what would signify that implanted natural affection, by which a creature through so many difficulties and hazards preserves its offspring and supports its kind.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n One must hope that such passages won’t draw down on Shaftesbury’s head the anathemas of Richard Dawkins and Steven Pinker as the great heresiarch of group selection theory<\/a>.<\/p>\n In a remarkable passage that might have been lifted from the pages of Westermarck, Shaftesbury\u00a0reveals some doubt regarding the objective existence of good and evil, in spite of our tendency to imagine them in that way:<\/p>\n If there be no real amiableness or deformity in moral acts, there is at least an imaginary one of full force.\u00a0 Though perhaps the thing itself should not be allowed in nature, the imagination or fancy of it must be allowed to be from nature alone.\u00a0 Nor can anything besides art and strong endeavor, with long practice and meditation, overcome such a natural prevention or prepossession of the mind in favor of this moral distinction.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n Finally, at the risk of exhausting the patience of even my most dogged readers, allow me to throw in another aspect of Shaftesbury’s writings that would put him “ahead of his time” even if he were alive today; his dispassionate and temperate comments on the subject of atheism.\u00a0 Consider, for example, the following:<\/p>\n …it does not seem, that atheism should of itself be the cause of any estimation or valuing of anything as fair, noble, and deserving which was the contrary.\u00a0 It can never, for instance, make it be thought that the being able to eat man’s flesh, or commit bestiality, is good and excellent in itself.\u00a0 But this is certain, that by means of corrupt religion or superstition, many things the most horridly unnatural and inhuman come to be received as excellent, good, and laudable in themselves.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n and<\/p>\n …religion, (according as the kind may prove) is capable of doing great good or harm, and atheism nothing positive in either way.\u00a0\u00a0 For however it may be indirectly an occasion of men’s losing a good and sufficient sense of right and wrong, it will not, as atheism merely, be the occasion of setting up a false species of it, which only false religion or fantastical opinion, derived commonly through superstition or credulity, is able to effect.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n To confirm those observations, one need look no further than recent events in the Middle East.\u00a0 When it comes to “fantastical opinion, derived commonly through superstition or credulity,” the 20th century gave us two outstanding examples, in the form of Communism and Nazism.\u00a0\u00a0Pundits like Bill O’Reilly claim that atheism itself is responsible for\u00a0all the crimes of these modern secular versions of “corrupt religion.”\u00a0 This was a form of bigotry of which\u00a0Shaftesbury, writing three centuries earlier, give or take, was not capable.<\/p>\n Of course, Shaftesbury no more wrote in a vacuum than Hutcheson.\u00a0 Similar themes may be found in the work of many other British moral philosophers of the time.\u00a0 In particular, Joseph Butler<\/a>, like Hutcheson, borrowed heavily from Shaftesbury in developing his own ideas regarding the origins of morality in human nature.\u00a0 Brief descriptions of the work of many others may be found in the book by Sir James MacKintosh referred to above, and in Michael Gill’s excellent book, The British Moralists on Human Nature and the Birth of Secular Ethics<\/em><\/a>.<\/p>\n